CHAPTER
NO. 01
LEGAL
CONCEPTS
CIVIL
AND CRIMINAL:
All legal wrongs can broadly be
classified into two heads, Civil & Criminal wrong.
The distinction between the two is
not to be found in the nature of the act itself as is offence supposed by
persons. The same act may be a Tort (Civil Wrong) and a Crime (Criminal wrong).
Thus, assault and defamation are Torts and the proceeding can be file by the
aggrieved party in a civil court for covering compensation from the doer. But
this act is also crimes and a criminal complaint can be file in a criminal
court for punishment of the offender.
If criminal proceeding can be file
in respect of that act it means, that the act is a crime or an offence. If on
the other hand the act is capable of being followed by proceeding in a civil
wrong. If both Civil and Criminal Proceedings can be filed in respect of the
same act then it is both a civil and criminal wrong.
The procedure followed by civil
court in a civil proceeding is quite different from that followed by Criminal
court in the case of a crime. The former is regulated by the Civil procedure
code 1908 (CPC) and later is governed by Cr. Pc 1973. The outcome as well as
the terminology used in both the proceeding is also different. In a civil suit
the Plaintiff can recover damages or compensation from the defendant. He can
also get an order for specific performance or injunction. In a Criminal case
the complainant places evidence before the court to show why the accused should
be punished, by way of jail sentence or a fine or both. Again the accused in a
criminal proceeding may be found guilty by the court where as the defendant in
a civil suit may be found liable to pay damages. Also the two sets of courts
are also different civil courts are presided over by judges. Whereas criminal
is presided by the magistrate.
An
appeal court may bear appeal from civil court as well as criminal courts. All
High Courts and Supreme Court hear appeals in civil and criminal matters
·
CLASSIFICATION
OF CIVIL WRONGS:
a.
Breach of contract
b.
Breach of trust
c.
Torts – assault, battery,
nuisance, trespass (civil wrong) negligence.
Examples:
¨ Breach
of contract:
¨ Breach
of trust:
¨ Torts:
·
COMMON
LAW AND EQUITY:
Rules
of natural justice.
Maxims:
a.
Nemo debet esse judex in propria
causa – ( No man can be judge in his own cause)
b.
Audi atterem parterm – (a man
cannot be condemn without being heard in the matter)
c.
Speaking order.
v Nemo debet esse judex in
propria causa:
The basic requirement of natural justice lays
down that no
man can be judge
and the prosecutor in the same case, in other words, he who judge must be
impartial and free from any kind of bias.
In
applying this maxim it is often said that it is not enough
that justice is
done, it is also necessary that justice is seen to be done. This means that
judge must be totally neutral and unbiased. Now bias can be divided in to four
types.
§ Personal Bias:
Ranjeet Thakur Vs union of
Union of India.
In one
case an officer was dismissed from the army on the ground of disobeying his superior.
An inquiry committee was set up to conduct an inquiry and the very officer
whose order he was alleged to have disobeyed was the member of this committee.
The Supreme Court set aside the report of inquiry committee in the ground that
inquiry was vitiated by bias.
§ Pecuniary Bias:
If
the adjudicator has a pecuniary _______________ in the
Subject
matter of the dispute he cannot decide the matter. His order would be set aside
even if it is shown that his decision was not in any way affected by such interest.
Mohapatra & co. Vs State
of Orissa.
When a
committee was set up to select book for educational
Institution
and it termed out that some of the committee members were themselves authors of
some books put up for selection. The Supreme Court set aside the list of books
recommended by the committee. As observed by court it is not the actual bias in
favor of author members that is material but the possibility of sub bias.
§ Official Bias:
Official
bias is a bias as regards the subject matter to be
Impartial
the adjudicator must not have any interest in the subject matter of the dispute
being adjudicator. Thus, if a lawyer has represented a client in a case and he
latter becomes a judge he cannot hear the particular case and pass orders in
that litigation.
§ Judicial obstinacy (Bias):
Judicial
obstinacy also means judicial bias thus in one case
judge X
heard a write petition file by a government servant and passed an order that he
should be immediately given a promotion. This order was set aside in appeal.
Later the same employee filed a fresh petition for payment of salary and other
benefits in terms of the order passed by the judge acts. (That is the order
which has been set aside in appeal). When this second petition was dismissed he
filed an appeal which was heard by a bench of two judges one of them being X.
the bench allowed the appeal and ordered certain arrears of salary to be paid.
When
the matter rich the Supreme Court the order of the bench was set aside in the
ground of a form of bias termed judicial obstinacy. The court observed that if
a judge decision is set aside, the judge must submit to such a decision, he
cannot rewrite overruled judgment in the same or collateral proceeding
State of
West Bengal Vs Shivananda Pathak.
RULE OF INTERPRETATION:
Rule of
interpretation are divided into two parts:
1.
Interpretation
of statue
2.
Interpretation
of contracts
I.
INTERPRETATION
OF STATUE:
According to salmond, interpretation of statue
is the process by which the court seek a certain the meaning of legislation,
“through the medium of the forms in which it is expressed”. In other words when
a apling the law passed by the legislature, the court seeks to give effect to
the words used by the legislature in the same sense as was intended by
legislature. It is a function of legislature to make the law and that of the
courts to interpret and apply such laws.
The following are the important rule of
interpretation of statue, generally followed by courts in most legal system –
a. Literal rule of interpretation:
Under this rule a judges is bound to apply the
law as it is worded. The word used in the statue must be literally applied,
nothing can be added and nothing can be subtracted. This is also refers to as
“Litera Legis” i.e literal construction of law. When this rule is followed the
judge cannot look beyond the literal legis.
As a rule, judges have to follow the
letter of law. They are not at liberty to add to subtract or modify to the
letter of the law only because they feel that the Sententia Legis (Intention of
Legislature) is not completely or correctly reflected in the words used in the
statue.
b. Mischief Rule of Interpretation:
Under
this rule the judge may look at the law which
Prevail
before the act was passed to find out what mischief the act was intended to
remedy. The judge can then interpret the words used in the act in such a way as
to suppress the mischief and advance the remedy.
Thus the
Bombay High Court has take the view that if it is relevant and material to
consider the circumstance in which an act was passed the court may look at the
debates which took place in the legislature before the act was passed.
Similarly the statement of object and reason of the act may also be considered
when interpreting the provision of the act.
c. The Rule of Nosciter a Sociss:
The
Latin maxim “Nosciter a Sociss” has been
translated
by Lord McMillan as the meaning of word is judge by the company it keeps, Henry
Fielding express in it almost identical words, a word is known by the company.
Applying
it rule if the meaning of the word used in a particular section of an act is
not clear the judge must look at the rest of the section in which the same word
appears. He may also ascertain the context in which the same word is used even
in other sections of that act and in some cases a reference may also be made to
earlier legislation dealing with the same subject matter where the same word
also may be used.
d. Rule of “Expressio Unius est exclusio
alterius”:
The
Latin maxim lays down that if one thing is
specifically
mention by implication, other similar things are excluded, thus if one section
an act uses the word “Children” and in other section it refers to bays the
legislative intent would be that, the later section almost apply to all
children but to bays.
e. Golden Rule:
Often
the words used by legislature may be
Ambiguous.
In many cases if a strict and narrow rule of interpretation is applied it would
be absurd result. Such a logical defect may have been created by bad drafting
or accident or even placing a comma at a wrong place. As observed by Lord Demin
where a defect appears in a language of statue a judge cannot simply fold his
hands and blame to the draftsmen.
In such cases where certain words
can be given a sensible meaning or an absurd meaning the courts would naturally
lead towards the first alternative.
As observed by Lord Reid, “when an
interpretation brings about a starting and inequitable result, this may lead
the court to seek another possible interpretation which will do better
justice”.
Applying this principle courts have
held that the words may used in an act may properly have to be construct to
mean shall, likewise the word and has some time been interpreted to mean or
vice-versa.
The golden rule has been applied by
the court in the following circumstance:
a)
When
there is an ambiguity in the words used by the statue.
b)
Where
there is an ambiguity between two provisions in the same statue.
c)
Where
there is a clerical error in the statue.
d)
When
the legislature has not made a provision in the statue for that particular
situation which is before the courts.
INTER
PRETATION OF CONTARCT:
Several years ago the court prefer
to interpret the words of a contract in a strict lateral and grammatical sense
in discovering the real intension of the parties the court refuse to fill in
any gap or to imply any term which was not there. The court would not look in
the actual minds of the parties but only at the actual words used by them.
PARDINE
Vs JANE –
In an old English case a house was
given on rent for a fixed term of 21 years. During this period the house was
forcibly occupied by enemy troops for three years and the tenant could not used
it during this period. When he file a suit containing that he was not liable to
pay rent for those 3 years, the court rejected his claim since he had agreed to
pay the rent for 21 years, he was bound by his terms of contract. It was open
to him to have provided for contingency such as this in the contract itself but
as he had not done so, he was bound by is written words.
This theory that court had no write
to add to or vary a written contract has been given up in course of time and
Lord Denim has championed the theory that court can imply reasonable term in
the contract to do full justice in the matter.
LIVER
POOL CITY COUNCIL Vs IRWIN:
A multi-storey building has been
constructed by the City Council and flats were let out to several tenants. The
Council itself retained control of lift and stair case. Some years later this
fails into disrepair and as the tenants could not use the lifts, they had to
walk-up the stairs in the dark. The question before the court of appeal was
whether there was any obligation on the council to repair them in the absence
of specific laws to that effect in the contract between Council and the
tenants.
The majority of the judges held that
there was no such obligation. Lord Denim however gain a strong dissenting judgment
observing that it was an implied term in the contract that the Council would
keep the lift and the stair case reasonable fit for used by the tenant, his
family and his visitors.
When the matter went in appeal to
the house Lords, Lord Denim views that the council under implied obligation to
take reasonable care of lift and stair case safe was accepted. However the house
of Lord declines to accept his general proposition about there being an implied
term in the contract as regards the repairs.
PRECEDENTS
DECLARATORY
THEORY AUTHORIATIVE
OF
PRECEDENT &
PEARSUASIVE
PRECEDENT
PRECEDENT:
If each judge were left to himself
to decide cases without reference to similar cases decided in the past the
result would be utter conclusion and chaos. Uniformity and certainty can be
achieved only when judges follow as far as possible the law led down earlier by
their fellow judges.
A precedent is the statement of law
formed in the judgment in the superior court which decision has to be followed
by all inferior courts. The rule of law is most significant feature of energy
democracy and certainty and continuity are necessary ingredient rule of law.
Doctrine of stare decisis (Binding
forces of precedent) is also reflected in Article 141 of constitution of India
which declares that law laid down by Supreme Court is binding on all courts in
India.
DECLARATARY
THEORY -
According to this theory, a judge
never makes the law he merely declares what the law is. The function of the
judge is merely to apply the law and not to play a creative role in making the
law. This theory is however, the process of application of law. Quite often a
judge is faced with a unique situation; a situation has never arisen in the
past. In such cases he lays down an entirely new principle and to that extent,
he widens and extends the law. He develops a new rule by analogy and by
deduction. The declaratary theory breaks down in such cases.
AUTHORITATIVE
AND PERSUASIVE –
An authoritative precedent is one
which a judge must follow whether he approves of it or not. It is binding on
him and he cannot use his judicial discretion not to follow it thus a judgment
of Supreme Court is binding on all courts in India. A judge of Bombay High
Court cannot disapprove or disagree with it. It is binding on all courts until
it is set aside by the Supreme Court itself.
A persuasive precedent on the other
hand is one which has only a persuasive value and is not binding on the court.
The court is under no obligation to follow it. And has the discretion not to
apply it.
However the court would normally
takes such a precedent in the consideration and such wait to it as deems fit.
Thus the judgment of Gujrat High court would have only persuasive efficacy
cited before the Bombay High Court.
RATIO
DECIDENDY -
Every judicial decision has two
aspects:
a)
Concrete
decidian which is binding on both the parties.
b)
It
also contains the judicial principle on which concrete decision is based, one
which operates as a precedent, one which has the force of law, and one which
bind with future litigants. This is called the Ratio Decidendy of the case.
Thus
a suit is file against a minor for enforcing a mortgage signed by him as a
minor cannot enter into a valid contract. The court dismisses a suit here
dismissal of suit is the concrete decision which binds both the party to the
suit. However, the legal principle the decision is based namely that minor
agreement is totally void can be regarded as Ratio Decidendy.
OBITOR
DICTA –
Obitor
Dicta are things said by the judge in the judgment which are not really
necessary for the decision in that case. In other words they are things said by
bay. In other words of Chief Justice Chagla, “an obiter dictum is an expression
of opinion on a point which is not necessary for the ultimate decision of the
case.
In one case a favorable repeat given
by a bank in respect of financial condition of a company turned out to be
false. However, there was a disclaimer clause in the report under which the
bank disclaimed any liability in the matter in view of this clause the court
held that the bank was not liable. However, having said that the court went
onto discussion. What the banks liability would have been in such a clause was
not there in the report. The entire discussion which was not at all necessary
to determine the liability of a bank in a particular case would be regarded as obiter.
