CHAPTER NO. 1
EAST INDIA COMPANY AND ITS ADMINISTRATION (1757 – 1857)
INTRODUCTION:-
Rise and growth
of English and the advent of East Indian Company. The resolution that was
enacted in 1599 under the chairmanship of Lord Mayer declared permission to
trade with the Far East on 31st December 1600, Queen Elizabeth
granted a charter to the government and the merchant of the East India Company
in London to trade with India. The charter was issued for 15 years. It could be
cancelled with just a notice of 2 years (Captain Hawkins) was sent in the 3rd
cavge and he landed at Surat. He approaches Emperor Jahangir to get concession
for the English to trade within the country. Jahangir granted permission to the
English to settle in Surat.
In 1615, Sir Thomas Rose was sent
King James II to secure trading concession in Machali Patnal and AalmGaon.
REGULATING ACT (1773):
The regulating
act of 1773 is no dought a measure landmark in the constitutional development
of India. Robert Clive got the concession (Diwani Rights) from the emperor Shah
Alam during 1765, the British entered India and the company got its settlement
in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
The English East
India Company and the British government gained by occupying the Indian Soil.
The inhabitants of India (Bangal) were unhappy and facing difficult times in
order to survive them fell victims to famine and corrupt practice of the company’s
officer on 1772. “A select committee was appointed to look into the matters if
the Indian constituency” it consisted of 31 member who probed and produce a
final report in may 1773. This came to known as the famous “Regulating Act”.
CAUSES FOR PASSING THE REGULATING ACT:-
·
The educated people in England through demanded
inquiry into the happenings of the East Indian Company in India. In other words
they wanted to control the company by the crown.
·
The Britishers dislike the Nawabs who were
disunited and dominated the English Laws and procedures at that period of
times.
·
The regulation and control by the state (British
Government) during the period 1773 to 1784 was totally a manipulation of
political issues.
PROVISIONS OF THE ACTS:-
·
The regulating act granted the “right to vote”
for elections of “Directors” of the company. The directors so elected should
have a stock of thousand pounds at for 12 months. They were selected for 1 year
but could continue for 4 years they had to submit everything related to civil
and military affairs. The General of Bangal was supreme. The General of Bombay
and Madras were substituent to the directors.
·
There was a provision that started the
appointment of a governor general and a council of 4 members. They had control
over civil and military affairs of the Madras, Bombay and Bengal presidencies.
They had the power of ordering, meaning governmental policies and also acquisition
of revenue from the kingdoms of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
Warren Hasting was appointed the
first Governor General of Bengal. he was assisted by the council members.
Clavering
Monsol
Philip Francis and Barewell.
·
They held office for the 5 years. They could be
removed by Representation of directors. The governor general had to council his
consult his council ministers for opinion. However the governor general and the
right to caste a vote in case of a
“tie”. The governor general had also the power of super intending and controls
the other presidencies.
·
The governor in council of Madras and Bombay
presidencies had to submit to the governor general of Bangal. They had to act
on the advice and the intelligence of the governor general. They had to put
forward are rules and regulations framed by them to the governor general for
approval. They could be suspended by the governor general for mismanaging or
not performing their duties.
·
The governor general and his council members had
to make law (rules and regulations) for the good and progress of the country.
The laws so made should not be against the local law of country. Every law should
be registered with the Supreme Court. The regulating act made provision for a
supreme court with a chief justice and three puissance judges. Sir Elizan Impey
was appointed the chief justice. The Supreme Court could try civil, criminal, admiralty
and ecclesiastic (case).
·
The regulating act prohibited receiving of
present and bribe by the servant of the company. They offenders were to make
double payments and were liable to be sent back to England.
·
The act settled the salaries of the governor general
and his council ministers. It is also stated that no British subject was to be
charged and interest at a rule higher than 12 %.
LIMITATIONS:
The
regulating act of 1773 had some short coming:
·
The most serious defect of the act was that it did
not define the correct jurisdiction and the powers of the governor general and
his council members. The relation between the governor general and the Supreme
Court had a bitter experience.
·
The Supreme Court claimed to serve its
inhabitance in the country which was opposed by Warren Hastings.
·
The Supreme Court claimed to have jurisdictions
over the “revenue collectors” of the company. However this was not recognized
by the governor general and his council ministers. The regulating act did not
mentioned as to which law was applicable to a Hindu, Islam or a Christian. The
judges of the Supreme Court were not aware of the local laws and were
proficient with only English laws.
·
The regulating did not clearly define who the servant
of the English East India Company was and under whose employment of
jurisdiction they fall.
·
The act made the position of the G.G weak.
CONCLUSION:
The object of the act was good, but the
system it established was imperfect any how it was of bold attempt 40 secure a
fine government without the inference of the crown. In short, the whole system
of English Law and Equality with its rules and regulation molded between the
common laws and juries predens. The result was that, the courts exercised large
power independently of the government and had complete control over
legislation. The political power rested in the hands Judges who had neither
responsibility has the required machinery to run the government.
CHARTER ACT:
·
The new act provided that the public servants of
the company were not the subject of the Supreme Court.
·
Revenue collectors and judicial officers of the
company were relieved from the rule of the Supreme Court.
·
The governor general and his council ministers
were also exempted. Thus, the governor general and his ministers were given
powers to make regulations and provisions for the “prevention courts” which were
formerly enjoyed by the Supreme Court. Hence, undoubtedly the act of 1781 was a
landmark in the history of Indian legislature as it put an end to the struggle
between those who wished to follow the English laws and court of justice.
DUNDAS BILL (1783):
The
emending act of 1781 did not remove the weakness of the regulating act. In
1783, Dundas introduced a bill which allowed the crown to control and own the
powers of acting and taking responsibility of G. G. and his (Minister) however
the bill was rejected as it give supreme powers to the crown.
FOX INDIA BILL (1783):
Fox
introduced his famous “Fox India Bill” it abolished the court of directors and
a court of proprietors established. It would consist of seven commission or
proprietor to administer the revenue from the Indian territories. They had the
powers to appoint or dismiss the persons in the service of the company.
However, the fox bill was rejected by the George III in 1812.
PITTS INDIA BILL (1784) (IMP):
Gorge
III invited “Pitts” to India in order to introduce his bill in January 1784. He
re-introduced the fox bill with little modifications.
PROVISIONS:
·
The Pitts act provided board of control of six
members(Bribi Councilors) they had comprehensive powers to direct, supervise
and control the Indian administration.
·
A
committee consisting of three directors was appointed to take care of political
and military matters.
·
The directors had the power to appoint members
to the office in India. They also had the powers to revise and revive the acts
of the Indian administration.
·
The governor general and his council had the
powers of controlling and directing different presidencies.
·
A special court of three judges, four peers and
six members of the house of common was created to try the offence in England
that was committed in India.
·
The act disapproved the policy of intervention
by the servants of the company.
LIMITATION:
·
The president of me board was exempted from
submitting his accounts to the parliament. The directors become submissive and under
the control of the president.
·
The powers now rested in the hands of the
councilors (secretary) of the state.
CONCLUSION:
The
important of the Pitts India Bill is that of the “Dual System” of control by
the parliament (crown from and the office in the Indian administration). It becomes
clear that the British parliament gained supremacy the East India Company.
Lord
Cornwall’s become the commander in chief of India and a series if
Charter Acts followed Charter Act
of 1793.
INTRODUCTION:
The English East India Company
was given a new charter in 1793 it had a long list.
PROVISIONS:
The G. G. was given powers to over ride his councilor
special powers were given to Cornwall’s in 1786. G. G. had the power to control
the presidencies of Bombay and Madras which was extended. The G. G. had the
power to appoint a vice – president in the council of his own choice. The
salaries of the members and the staff of the board of control were to come from
the India renewal. The act controlled and regulating the finance of the company
the charter of the company got renewed offer every 20 years.
CHARTER ACT OF 1813:
The charter act renewed after every 20
years. The people in England
Demanded the end of “commercial
monopoly” of the East India Company ultimately the parliament issued the
charter act of 1813 with many changes.
PROVISIONS:
The companies monopoly in India and China
would continue but under the
Crowns (Rule) control. The act put down rules and
regulation for Indian revenue. The military forces were to be maintained from
the Indian revenue. The company had to maintain commercial and territorial
accounts separately. More than 20,000 troops were to be maintained within a colony.
The powers of super intendance and the direction of the board of directors were
now defined. The local government in India had the power to impose the tax and
also punish if they fail to pay. The acts provided appointment of bishops for
religious welfare of the Christians (Europeans) in India.
The act made provision for training of civil and
military servants of the company in India.
CHARTER ACT OF 1833:
The charter got renewed after 20 years.
That is in 1833 the British Wanted to abolish. The monopoly of trade of the
company. Thus, the commercial function of the company ended. The E.I.C now
could only carry out political functions (Running the state)
PROVISION:
The act restricted patronage (continued
succession) of the board of directors.
The president of the board becomes the minister for
Indian affairs they were assisted by two commissioners. The charter of 1833
centralized the administrate of the company in India. The G. G. of Bengal becomes
the G. G. of India. He had powers in civil and military affairs of the country
there was legal centralization in India. A uniform system was set up to make
laws which were followed by the different presidencies now it was termed as
“Acts” and not “Regulation” The presidencies of Madras and Bombay had to
maintain an army. They were to be control by the central government. The act
provided for the certification (Section & Clause) of laws.
Section 17 of the act declare that now Indian subject
of the company in India was to be clevarred from holding office under the
company by reason of religion, birth or descent. The government of India was
given permission to take measure for the abolishing of slavery and welfare of
the people.
CHARTER ACT OF 1853 (IMP):
The charters got renewed after 20
years that is in 1833. The British wanted to abolish the monopoly of trade of
the company ended. Thus, the commercial function of the company ended. The
E.I.C now could only carry out political function (Running the state).
PROVISION:
The charter got renewed in 1853, according
to the act; law members were made executive councilors to the governor general.
The governor general had the power to a vice president to his council they had
the power to make laws. A provision was made to send the representative to the
council legislature. Provisions were made for the appointment of a separate governor
for the presidency of Bengal. the chief justice of the supreme court of
Calcutta was made Ex-office members of the council the governor general had the
powers of appointing two as move civil servants as members of the council. Powers
were given to the Bon to administrator of the precedence. The partrange of BOD
was taken away the vacancy were to be filled through competitors exam the
numbers of director was reduced from 18 to 6 and they were nominated by the
crown.
The act made provision to an authority by the Crown to
appoint law commissioners in England.
CRITICISM:
One
of the greater defect of the charter act 1853 was that no Indian element was
associated with the legislature council there by the government of India got no
opportunity of explaining their aims and intensions.
CHAPTER NO. 2
THE REVOLT OF 1857
THE REVOLT OF 1857:
The event of
1857 was termed as mutiny survey law races had the opinion that the mutiny
started an own within the army due to the greased cartridges (cartos) and
nothing else it was not a conspiracy by definite a united vice against the
British imperisationce. According to John sally “wholly and unpatriotic and
selfish sepoy medley with no native leadership and no popular support.
The British held
Bahadur Shah to II responsible for originating the mutiny Nana Saheb organized
the revolution before its out break in Meerut the passed invitation secretly to
various princess of different state, religion etc. especially to the Marathas. The
revolt of 1857 was the result of a Hindu conspirator it was considered that the
Hindus were bent upon achieving their goal carefully they needed time in
choosing the vipins against the well organized British army. The Hindus had
their revelian successfully organized under the guidance of Nana Sahib.
The revolt was the spontaneous
outcome was spoise of all caste and
creed it was rightly called the “war of Indian Independence it developed into
and uprising in 1857 it could not succeed as it did not have a proper leader to
assist then the commander were in capable and had no equipment vipins to match
the Britishers the fought with simple techniques.
EXAMPLE:
Gorilla tactics by the Marathas –
There were the three main reason for the
revolt to take place. There was a
strong resistance against British
rules the civilians joint hands with the revolts to show their grievances some
people remain nutrill. The idea of unity and harmony was found between the
Hindus and the Muslims, “A spirit of nationalism” improper Bahadur Shah did not
support the British nor he supported the mutiny. The Rani of Jhansi initially
did not support the revolt but later on joint hands with Nana Saheb against the
British.
CONCLUSION:
In the words of
Ashok Mehta “the reveliance of 1857 was more than amear Scopyes mutiny and was
rightly consider a social valcony were many pent – up emotion find solutions”
after the event the whole topography in India change the mark of the reviliance
remained the deep and shinning.
CAUSES OF THE REVOLT:
POLITICAL CAUSES –
They were many reason for the uprising
1857. Lord Dalhousie followed
a policy of “doctrine of lapse”
which was totally disliked by the rulers (kings and princess) who had know proper, legal heir. It was a
need procisor by the British to snatch Indian Territories. This created
uneasiness and suspicion among the rulers in India.
EXAMPLE:
Punjab
was annexed on the pretext of an illegal heir in the year 1849. Lord Dalhousie
did not recognize the adopted son of the King of Satara in 1853 he annexed the
state of Jhansi. The British confiscated the state of the majority of Falukdas
and Zamindars on the same pretax all this cause discontaned and hatred for the
Britishers.
The
soldiers were also dissatisfied and they join the revolt against the British.
The English officers constantly insulted and disrespected the Indian solders
the administration was in affected insufficient there was a sure appociation
among the Indian masses who joint together against the British imperioristic
rule.
RELIGIOUS CAUSES –
GRESS
CARTRIDGES:
The government replaced the heavy based
Musket with a new enfilled refill. This triggered the immediate cause for the
uprising in 1857 in order to load a new rifle, the cartridges had to be removed
from there couches by taking it apart with the help of the teeth & then
loaded to the rifle. The greased cartridges believed to be made from the “Fat
of Cow” and from the “Fat of the Pig”. Both the Hindus and the Muslims were
against there religion.
The Indian
sipoys that now very sure that the English were attempting to break their caste
and religion by instigating the Hindus
against Muslims. The Indian refused to used Grease cartos they were anger and
hatred among the sipoys the English officer however over look the issue on 26
February 1857, the 19th native infantry at Baharampur refused to
touch the greased they were marched to Barrakpur to be disbanded in front of
English Soldiers on 29 March 1857. A young Indian officer Mangal Pandey of the
34 infantry attacked and killed a British sergeant. The guards were called for help
but nobody took orders later Mangal Pandey was beaten by the English man
general Hersay commanded the soldiers to march while Mangal Pandey was hang
till death instantly without any trial, the 34 native infantry was disbanded on
6th May 1857.
EFFECT OF THE REVOLUTION –
The direct
effect of the revolution was that it ended the East India Company control and
give rise to government of India , the sub in India was know under the control
of the British crown the both of control and the director was abolish the
secretary for state in India was establish Queen Victoria proclaimed that the
British government in the future will not annexed any Indian territory. The
Indian princes were assure the rient to adoption they was complete and extensive
re – organization of the army in India group were organized to take care of the
sentiments and create national unity. However most if key position in the
government was still held by the English men.
The
revolt created a deep seated hatred for the Britishers in the mind of the
Indian now the interest in India shifted from external policy to internal
development, the differences between the Hindus and the Muslims now began to
develop, they are unity slowly disintegrated it eventually led to partition of
India (Pakistan in 1947).
QUEENS PROCLAMATION:
On
November 1st 1858, other Darbar was held at Allahbad by Lord calling
on this occasion he rule out the Queen’s Proclamation to the Indian Princes and
common masses the feeling of generosity, for bearance and religious tolerance
was highlighted in the proclamation, it gave equal opportunity to the India
like the European the queen promise prosperity and progress of the Indian
community.
“With
the consent of spiritual & temporal”, the common in the parliament the
crown takes over the administration of the territories in India. The appointment
of trusties and loyal councilor was made ( Charles John, viceroy Canning) Lord
Canning was the governor general appointed to administer to territories in
India it was announced that all native princess under the British crown would
be accepted by the British government there would be known annexure on the
pretext of (illegal heir) the princess would have their self respect secure the
British crown get access internal peace and well being of the Indian subject it
was declared that the subject, irrespective of cost, creed, religion etc. will
be free and impartially admitted to offices in the service of the company. The
proclamation declared unconditional power, if amnesty and pardon for any past
mistake.
CONCLUSION:
The
East India company under the leadership of crown now promised to strive for the
peace and prosperity of the Indian people to put in short the Queen’s
proclamation 1858 was indeed a gift of the constitution in the Indian History
its remain the basic for India administration setup.
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA 1858:
INTRODUCTION:
They
was totally discontent among the Indians over the constitution of the East
India Company the Indian realized the company native was to a mars wealth
Indian masses now did not trust the Britisher the outbreak of the mutiny strengthen
and united the Indian’s (elites) who wished to range their own administration
thus the company got abolished “the government of India took risk the Act was
passed in 1858 & its provision were as:
I.
The government of India Act 1858 stated under
the name of the Queen, that all territory and the power of the company would
now rest in the hands of the crown. However, the government of India would
administer on behalf of the Queen.
II.
The board of control and the court of directors
was abolished the powers words transferred to the “secretary of state” in
India, he was given super power and he could control directly affairs of the
government of India. He would be assisted by agent.
III.
The council secretary consisted of 15 members, 7
of them were elected by the crown and 7 were elected by the director.
IV.
The secretary presided over important meetings,
the council would be divided into various purposeful administrative setup it
got the power to control civil and military affairs of the country.
V.
The Indian revenue was not to be used for
military operation outside India without the permission of the parliament.
VI.
The secretary of state for India declared to be
a co-operative body the governor and his council would be appointed by the
crown the Act of patronage between the government of India and the secretary of
state got affected.
CONCLUSION:
The Act of 1858
wasted the India council with powers they could control the financial policy of
the government of India however the secretary could exercise his power over the
council, ultimately the powers so given rested in the hands of British crown.
INDIA COUNCIL ACT 1861 –
INTRODUCTION:
The
mutiny had multiple effects one such result was the processing of the Indian
council Act 1861.
There
was a difference between state council and the governor of different presidency
on certain issue income tax, there was lack of communication between the
secretary and the legal counsel with the introduction of this act. The legal authority
got prominence. Its function becomes legislature. The governor general had to
take the opinion of the member before taken the member should not exceed 12,
and not less than 6, the meeting would be held in different regions in India
with local assistance (Local Parties, Zamindars, Princess etc.) The governor
general had powers to pass rules and regulation for the whole of India.
PROVISION:
I.
The act provided additional members to the executive
council would be a legal knowledgeable person other than technical lawyers.
II.
The Act give the powers to the governor. He
could exercise special business in the territories, important matter were
decided by the governor he could appoint a nominee who could preside in his
absence. The governor could make rules and regulation for the progress and also
conduct business in India.
III.
The executive council had supreme powers to
decide and follow its execution they were 6 to 12 members who were nominated by
the governor general they consisted of local members from the Indian Territory
they held office for 2 years they could make loss for the whole of British
India and not to the Britishers.
IV.
The governor general had powers of VETO on any laws
passed by the court all the law needed the approval of the governor general the
parliament on the other hand had the power to accept or reject the act made by
the governor general and the council members.
V.
The government of Bombay & Madras had the
power to nominate and advocate general, they would not less then 4and more than
8, they would be additional members to the executive council for legal purpose.
However the governor had to give his approval for every amendment that was
made.
MERIT OF THE ACT (Imp)–
It
was the beginning, a landmark in the constitution of India that is Indian
representation in politics. It help known official India to frame loose
policies of legislation. Thus three ideas that is Publicity, Discussion and
Information (Law) was introduce in the Indian Territory, the masses have the
opportunity to voice their grievances & complaints to the government the
powers of the known official. However was restricted they did not take active
part in the legislation it was for name sake.
DEMERITS OF THE ACT –
The
act was retro grade measure against all policy the right to question on various
act, matters related to administration were not emphasized. The council had to
depend on the members for the every single policy matter. The governor general
was given super powers and could control or restrict the right of the people
regarding discussion and introduction of new rules and policy.
CHAPTER NO. 3
INTRODUCTION:
social and
religious development during the 18th century was a quite peace that
change the Indian century after decline of the Mughal Empire there was social,
religious and ecomonic distrubence in the Indian territory after the death of
Aurangzeb India last authority there was no administration no laws and there
was total insecurity and the condition was pathetic.
SOCIAL CONDITION:
The social
life of India during the 18th century was full of calamites and bad fortune.
The general masses were influenced by religion and caste . The higher caste was the supreme and the lower caste was the supressed and tactured the wealth of
the country was restricted in the hands of few rich people, the social system
depended on the basis of the status (prestige). It was based on the order of
the religious & traditional belief.
CASTE SYSTEM:
The Hindu
society was divided into four varnas – Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishiyas, and the
Shudras, the Brahmans consisted of teacher & guidance they were class of
priest the main function of Kshatriyas was to defend the Kingdom (temporal
powers), the Vaishiyas were the community of the businessman and trades. One
part of Vaishiyas were agriculture and the other took to the trade and the
business (money lending) finally the Shudras consisted of the masses of people
who were tribes, Vagabonds etc. who were converted Hindus, they were directly
or indirectly to serve the upper caste , below this they were other sub caste .
There were restriction
of marriage, eating habits and occupation within the caste . It was defined by
the social status disobedience or debiation from the rules let the
ex-communication (osteism) the village or the caste panchayat conducted cases & provided
solution.
Occupation
was open to all agriculture & military service, the caste system was rigid every caste have to follow their own occupation, caste restriction were enforced by the panchayat
chief through fines, panace, torture and ex-communication family as an
institution had prime importance in the India society the India society the
pre-dominantly (patriatal) that is domination by the male, the inheritance of
property was through male descendent, on the other hand some families followed
Matriarchal System that is domination by the female
DOMINATION BY FEMALE:
The property inheritance was
through female descanded ex-malvari of kerela.
The year
1766 to 1796 – many Hindu and Muslim woman played a significant role in the
politics – Eg:- Ahiliya Halkar, Rani Laxmi Bai, Razia Sultan, however the status
of woman in the family depended upon the capacity of the birth, she could give specially
to male children’s (Sons) she was considered to the Lakshmi (Wealth) but her
birth was not welcome, it was believe that she was depended all through her
life time.
FEMALE INFANTRY
SYSTEM:
Female the
custom of FI was very much prevalent in the 18th century in India.
Child marriages were dominant it was custom to kill the female infant after its
birth, it was believed that the girl child was a responsibility and “burden to
the parents this evil killing of the girl child was termed as was known as
female infantry system.
The instability
and insecurity left an existing among the parents regarding the honor of their
daughters, this lawlessness among the Hindus as well as Muslim woman during the
18th century they suffered mentally and physically, the status of
woman depicted definity as sad picture during the 18th century in
India.
Polygamy
was found in the Indian society. Widow remarriage were against principle of
Hindu marriage the state of the widow was pathetic and untouchability was
another evil that was found in India during the 18th century the
lower caste and the sub caste were denying basic privileged was living the
whole society was bound by blind faith and superstition.
The Hindus also followed the policy
of sacrifice selfemalation (sati practice) different practices like offering
different part of the body to please the Goddes was also found in the society
slavery was present in the society they were two types – Domestic slavery and
Bounded Labour.
CONCLUSION:
The
economic condition, natural calamities, poverty, famines, etc. compelled the
Masses to leave a sad life.
EDUCATION –
Education
was on communal basis. Quality was not the matter Hindus & Muslims were far
away from progress. The teacher usually belong to the writer class, the
students and the teachers always belong to the upper class (Brahmans) the
subject was religion & theoretic “The primary school indulges in three houses.
(Reading writing & arithmetic). Students learn writing composition,
business letters in arithmetic the main object was to learn and become
proficient for commercial purpose (accounting) the upper class Muslims educated
themselves the memorizing of the instruction of the Quran was mandatory, the
medium of instruction was Persian “ the centre for high education for Muslims
was reffered to as Makkas and Madarsa” wild elementary education or schools for
the Hindus was called Pathshala or Gurukul. Both were based on principle of
honesty, truth, and the obedience. Female education as little important.
RELIGION:
The Hindus
believed in the concept of God & Spiritualism. They belief in trimidi( Brahma,
Vishnu & Vaish) followers by Shivawere called Shavides, follower of Vishnu
Vaishnavides etc. The female counter part was also worship of “shakti” the
Muslims followed the doctrine of Wahadat – ul – wajib ( Unity of Existence)
they were influenced by the Hinduism
MARRIAGE:
Hindus and
Muslims were influenced by each other by their culture & way of living. The
system of marriage was universal polygamy was followed in the Muslim community.
The female in the earlier stages enjoyed a High status of living. Later on it fall divorce and the Hindus was considered TAGO.
The parents had to provide the dowry to their daughters at the time of marriage
they had a patriotal family. The Muslim women were kept in seclusion the house
was divided into Zananah & Mardanah, in Islam a man could be committed to
more than one wife in marriage the status of the man was determined by the
number of wives, he had. There was no fixed limit in marriage, Mehar was giving
at the time of Marriage or after the marriage by the Husband.
NATIONAL AWAKENING IN
THE INDIA:
The causes for national moments for India:
1. British
imperialism was one of the most important reasons, the outcome for the Indian
National Movement. It helped the Indian to unite against the British creating a
spirit of freedom.
2. Religious
and Social reformer played an important role in influencing the masses. Reformers
like Raja Ram Mohan Rao, Dayanand Saraswati, Ishwar Chadra Dayanand Sagar etc.
influenced people to greate extence they taught them principal of liberty and
created in them a thirst for Independence.
3. The
Indian press and literature created consiscence and awakening of independence
within the Indian minds, newspapers like – Indian Mirror, Bombay Samachar,
Hindu Patriot, Amrita Bazar Patrika, Indu Prakash, Bengali Public Opinion,
Kesary, Maratha, (Lokmanya Tilak) etc created in passion for freedom.
4. The
English language played an important role awakening and the growth of desperate
of nationalism few educated Indian spread the ideas of freedom to the
illiterate masses in the Indian country.
CONCLUSION:
The
period from 1876 – 1884 is rightly called as (seed time) of India nationalism,
various act was post in the Indian administration for its growth and
development. This period was age of renaissance and reforms great leaders were know
during this period and instigated in the minds of the Indian, the spirit of
oneness and independence, thus nationalism was the answer to British imperialism.
Some
social religion moments of the 18th – 19th century work
as follow:
·
BRAHAMO
SAMAAJH (1774 – 1833):
In 1815 Raja Ram Mohan founded the “Atmiya Sabha” which
later on
called Brahma Samaajh, in 1828 its
main aim was to eradicate evils from the Indian society, it check the influence
of Christianity and brought about religious unity some of its principal were –
I.
Condemn ideal worship and caste system
II.
Universal tolerant towards all religion.
III.
Belief in God and inmartality of the soul.
IV.
It was opposed to re-incarnation and advocated
universal brotherhood.
RAJA RAM MOHAN RAO:
Raja
Ram Mohan Rao was the founder of the Brahma Samaj. He believed in one God and
universal tolerance he is called the “father of Indian renaissance” he was a
wealthy Brahman learned knowing different languages who served in the East
India Company he was a great social reformer educationalist, religious
reformer, Universalist and an able administrator.
ACHIVEMENT:
I.
Raja Ram Mohan Rao condemn the cruel practice of
sati with the help of Lord Bantinca, the practice of sati was abolished by low
in 1829.
II.
He advocated western education that is the
English language, he established the Hindu collage in Calcutta.
III.
He demanded permanent settlement of revenue and
removal of exports duty on India goods.
·
PRATHNA
SAMAAJ:
Prathna
samaajh was a socio religious movement in Maharashtra. It
Was founded in 1867 in Bombay by
Atma Ram Panduranga under the guidance of Keshaw Chandra Sen the main principal
of the samaaj were:
I.
It disapproved the caste system
II.
It believed in the rational worship
III.
The aimed for women education, introduced widow
re-marriages and worked for the abolishing of child marriages.
IV.
They started the depressed classes’ mission,
orphanages, widow homes and night schools.
·
ARYA SAMAAJ:
Arya
Samaaj was founded by the Dyanand Saraswati an eminent
“Sanskrit Scholar his main
teaching was go back to Vedas” other principal of the samaaj were:
I.
Condemn other worship and caste system.
II.
They believed in oneness of God. They were
against the child marriages. They progresed the female education and widow
re-marriage. He gave importance to cultural Heritage.
III.
He propagate to “Shuddhi Movement” to convert
member of other faith into Hinduism.
DAYANAND SARASWATI(1824-1883):
His
original name was Mule Shankar, he was born in Kathiyawar. He was holded by a
blind saint. He introduces Arya Samaj in 1875. He believed the concept of karma
and ascetism & transmigration of the soul. He advocated equal states of
women in the society. He was against untouchability, he arouse the spirit of Nationalism
among the Indian, his slogan was “India for Indians”. He was the first to
advocate the principal of Swaraj and Swadeshi.
THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY –
The
theosophical society was founded by the Madam Blackvatsky and Carnal Potts in
1857 in New York which spread to India to 1879. Its headquarters is in Madaras,
the Principal were:
I.
Universal brotherhood. It give importance to the
study of comparative religion & philosophy.
II.
Investigating into natural laws that cannot be
explained.
III.
They were against conversion & believed in
the trans migration of the soul they also believed in the Black Magic system
(Mysticism).
Dr. Anne Basant
played an important role in preparing the theosophical societies and its
principal. She joint the society in 1887, she believed in Vedas and Upanishad.
She protested against the child marriages. She started the educational
institution “ the home rule legue was founded by Dr. Anne Basant” she was a
famous writer on educationist, philosopher and was the president of Indian
national congress in 1917.
ISHWAR CHANDRA VIDYA SAGAR:
Was
a social reformer and educationist and a philosopher. He was a Bengali writer,
adopt in Dharma Shastra, Vedas, Astrology and the Six system of Philosophy. He
was born in 1820 in Bengal. He obtained the title “Vidya Sagar”
ACHIVEMENTS:
I.
He founded school and collages and promoted
female education.
II.
He condemned child marriage, polygamy and the
dowry system.
III.
He was the first person to advocate widow
re-marriage in action.
DADA BHAI NAOROJI:
He
was called rightly the “Grand old man of India” he was born in Parsi family in
1825 he was great parliamentary. He was the main pillar in the foundation of
the Indian. National. Congress. in 1885. He assure the people in India about the draining of
Indian wealth to great Britain (England) he argued for self Government, he
believed in curtaining Swaraj by constitutional method.
ACHIVEMENT:
I.
Self government.
II.
Boycott of foreign goods.
III.
National education
IV.
Uplifment of female education.
DRAIN OF WEALTH –
Dada
Bhai was the great patriot of the modern India, in his book “Poverty under
British rule in India” he pointed out the continuous flow of wealth from India
to Britain, the British government reserved its economic policy by increasing
import and decreasing export which created in balance of trade. Thus, Indian
wealth of draining out resulting in closed down of Indian industries. Leading
to unemployment and heavy administrative caused these points were brought to
notice of general India masses to become aware of colonial exploitation.
ECONOMIC CONDITION –
During the 18th
century, in India, in spite of the fact that it was a rich country in
resources, it was consider to be really power in its economic status the Nawabs
& the Princess who ruled certain parts in India lead a luxurious life, the
local people were impoverished (peasants & farmers) they were exploited by
the richer class the advent of the British rule in India --------- the status
of Indian markets. Delhi & Mathura were plundered by Shah Abdali due to the
disintegration of the Mughal Empire, Chaos prevailed.
EFFECTS:
There was complete
unemployment in the country there was starvation & poverty, criminal
activities like robbery, loot etc. were on the rise. It approved the principal
of humanity & the period depicted Anarchy (Dictator). There were a lot of
conversions, especially the Christian social worker who landed in India.
Indian religion
though was self reliant, it faced problems. The money lenders & bankers
extended loan for business purpose this helped in flourishing trade in India.
The important centre for textile Industries were Daka, Oshimabad in Bengal
& Baruch etc. Indian Gujrat, Patna in Bihar, Surat etc. India was also self
contained in agriculture industrial. The goods were also produced in the
country for self consumption. The workmanship & skill was unique there was
always a demand for (Materials) Indian goods like Raw SILK, IVARY, CORAL,
GARTAISE SHELL, AMBER etc. India goods were expected & were in much demand
in the foreign land. Food grains like GRAM, RICE, MILLETS, BAJRA, JAWAR,
TOBACCO, OPIUM & Indigo were some commercial “cash” Crops.
Thus India,
though was a rich country in terms of natural resources, she was economically
backward.
STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM:
Establishment of the Indian National
Congress:
MODERATES:
The early
congress man who administer the Indian national movement were rightly called
the “Moderates”. It was between the years 1885 to 1905. Some few Indians who
educated themselves in the English language adamant in arousing the Indian
masses to fight for India independence from the British imperialist.
This
Indian were “Indians by blood and color but were British in taste,
opinion, morals and intellects.
The moderates believe in a balance procedure that had to be followed which
would be justify and given a fair chance. The moderates were loyal to the
British Crown, yet they wanted a free India. The independence of mother India
was to be achieve by proper procedure and fair trial.
The
moderates believed in constitutional approach rather than agitations. The principles
of patients, steadiness and unity were the pillar in which they wanted
independence. They wanted to educate the general masses and reveal to them the
spirit of freedom the idea to question and criticized that was in opposition to
freedom and human rights was inculcated into the minds of Indian common man. It
was done through press.
OBJECTIVES:
I.
Wider employment opportunities for Indian as
high grade officers and public services and institution.
II.
Firm faith in the values of western culture and
sense of justice.
III.
To follow the principles of democracy in the
Indian constitution.
IV.
Training and educating the Indian masses on the
principles of liberty and freedom
WORKING OF MODERATES:
The
moderates united the Indian towards and awakening. They used the press, committing,
publishing the generals etc. they wanted the Indian masses to rise above caste,
creed and language. They wanted the masses to fight against imperialism in a
constitutional and amicable manner. They started disobeying the policies of
Britishers and tariffs and imposition of Tax. They insisted that the government
should provide chip credit to the peasant through the agricultural banking
systems. They believed in a radical change for the poverty stricken class and
the economically backwards class. They demanded the abolishing of the “salt
tax”.
The
moderates criticized poverty and economic stagnation of the Indian country.
They demanded rapid development for modern industries and emphasized on the
usage of “Swadeshi Goods”. They wanted the masses to boycott all British goods.
They demanded a separate judiciary from the executive. They wanted the British
government to spend on educating the people of the country. They also demanded
expansion of reforms that were existing in the legislative council.
RESPONSE OF THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT TO THE MODERATES:
The British
government looked down upon the demands of the moderates. They were hostile
towards the establishment of INC. the British officers openly criticized the
Indian leaders as “Disloyal Babus” “seditious Brahmins” and “violent Villains”.
The English government considered the INC as an unclean thing.
The Britishers dependent
on the divide and rule policy. It weekend the Nationalist movement in India.
They created disunity among the princely states and make them fight against
each other. They created a strong hatred amongst the Hindus and the Muslims
which led to communal rivalries. Thus the Britishers responded in a different
manner to the constitutional approach of the moderates.
ACHIEVEMENTS:
The moderates did not succeed.
Their reforms were not accepted by the British. They Britishers were relucting
to give freedom to India. Thus they failed. They followed the method of
patience that is through policies and petitions. They failed to realize the
political and economic interest of the Indians. It leads to a split between the
Hindus and the Muslims which was totally disapproved by the Congress. However,
they attempted to patch but could not succeed. Anyhow, a tremendous job was
done by bringing in reforms which hold good even today in the Indian
Constitutions. The ideas of democracy and civil liberty were inculcated in the
Indian minds.
This pace was rightly called as the
sowing of Indian National Movement. It was the development of the Indian
National Congress. The moderates were able to unit Indians for a common cause
I.e, the struggle for freedom “the Indian independence”.
THE INDIAN COUNCIL
ACT 1892:
The British
government was not interested in developing the Indian country (Colony). For
about 31 years the British government did not consider to pass any reforms for
the growth of the Indian continent. Duffering suggested reforms for India for
the first time in order to please the enlighten Indian. A detailed proposal was
enacted which came to be called as the “Indian Councils Act”. The act gave
extra powers to the public and authorized them to discuss the financial
statements under certain rules and regulation.
PROVISION:
I.
The council members had the right to address
question to the government regarding public interest. Six days were allotted to
receive a reply. The President could disallow the question, if it’s against the
British government.
II.
Number of additional members in the council was
increased. It was not to be less than 10 and more than 16. 2/5 of the
additional members were to be non official.
III.
The government agreed allow election for the
first time, election were held in India through proper rule and regulation.
DISADVANTAGES OF ACT
(LIMITATION):
I.
The people who represented the masses did not
voice the common man’s complaints. They did not even sit in the legislature as
matter of fact.
II.
The members could not asked any supplement
question and at times, the President refuse answering. The council had no
control over the budget.
III.
The rules of the election were unfair. Certain
classes were over the represented while others had no representation.
IV.
The act deliberately attempted to confuse the
ideas of the legislature i.e the principles of the democracy.
V.
The taxation was high and the money (resource)
was used for imperial purpose. It did not maintain the Indian administration
nor the Military expense.
VI.
The election process became corrupt and was
misused by the people in position.
To conclude the demands of the
Indian National Congress was definitely a land mark to pay the India
administrative setup, though it was unsatisfactory.
RISE OF THE EXTREMIST
AND THE PARTITION OF BANGLE 1905 (MILITANT NATIONALIST):
Many
factors lead to the development of the “Extremist”. The council’s act of 1892
did not satisfy both the moderates and the extremists. A class of extremist
evolved from the moderates. The moderates were unhappy. They believed that this
policy was a sign of weakness.
There was
discontained among the general Indian masses. The constant economic drain of
resources from India was one of the major reasons for unhappiness and
dissatisfaction. Manufacture of British goods and its sale at a lower price.
Collapsed the India small scale industries (cottage industries). The peasants
and the farmer became poorer and jobless. The outbreak of famine in 1897 affected
20 million people and spread over 70 thousands square miles in the Indian
continent. The British government ignores the situation. There was “Bubonic
Plague” in Bombay. No sympathy was shown by the government and no remadian
steps were taken to control the disaster. All these led to dissatisfaction and
the growth of militant extremist leaders (Militant Nationalism). They believed
in aggressive action. They voilently reacted to attain Sampoorn Swaraj. Eg.
Chandra shekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh.
WORKING OF EXTREMIST:
The method
followed by the extremist were slogan –
I.
Boycott of foreign goods
II.
Swadeshi
III.
National education
They
demanded a self – government, for economic, political, and cultural
development of the country. Leaders like Lokmanya Tilak,
Bipinchandra Pal, preached the important of self-respect. They believe in
powerful action and not mere prayer, petitions and protest. Agitation and mass
action was propagated by the extremist. Swaraj is my birth right and I shall
have it. Kesari Hind and Maratha.
RESULT OR
ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE EXTREMIST:
The
government of India enacted acts which curved of the extremist (Public Meeting
act, Criminal Law act, Seditious meeting act, News paper act). The main
achievement of the extremist was that they thought the common people self
confidence and self reliance. They propagated new methods of political
organization. They introduce struggle and agitation to reach their goal.
PARTITION OF BANGAL:
The secretary
for state of India agreed to divide the province of Bangal on 28th
July 1905. Lord Curzon issued an order to divide Bangal in to two parts (East
and West Bangal). East Bangal was dominated by Muslims and West Bangal was
dominated by Hindus.
The
province of Bangal was huge in size. There was population of about 78 millions.
It was difficult to be administrered by a single leftenante general and this
was the reason why Curzon divided Bangal.
A new
province of eastern Bangal consisting of Assam, Chitagon with fifteen District.
It has a population of about 31 millions.
The British
government interpreted the policy of divide and rule by which they exploited
the situation in Bangal. The important effect of the partition was that
Nationalism became stronger, Unity among the Indians give rise to the extremist
who gave a stiff agitation against the British government. For the government
it was just a readjustment of administer boundaries. For the extremist it was
curving their freedom.
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